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The Nobel Prizes are prizes awarded annually to people (and, in the case of the Peace Prize, sometimes to organizations) who have completed outstanding research, invented ground-breaking techniques or equipment, or made an outstanding contribution to society in physics, chemistry, literature, peace, medicine or physiology and economics. They are widely regarded as the supreme commendation in their respective subject areas. Those honored with a prize are known as Nobel Laureates. No prize was given in the field of mathematics. Many reasons were given for this omission but actual reason is not known.

The Prizes were instituted by the Swedish scientist Alfred Nobel through his will. They were first awarded in 1901, five years after Nobel’s death. The prize in economics, instituted by the Bank of Sweden, has been awarded since 1969.

As of October 2006, a total of 781 Nobel Prizes have been awarded, 763 to individuals (33 of these to women) and 18 to organizations. A few Prize winners have declined the award. There are years in which one or more Prizes are not awarded; during World War II, for instance, no Prizes were awarded in any category between 1940 and 1942. Each Prize stipulates, however, that it must be awarded at least once every five years. Prizes cannot be revoked. Since 1974, no award may be made posthumously, i.e. nominees must be alive at the time of their nomination.

The names of the laureates were announced in the month of October every year. The Prizes are then awarded at formal ceremonies held annually on December 10, the anniversary of Alfred Nobel’s death.� The Peace Prize ceremony has been held at the Norwegian Nobel Institute (1905-1946); the Aula of the University of Oslo (1947-1990); and most recently at the Oslo City Hall. As of 2005, the other Prize ceremonies have been held at the Stockholm Concert Hall.

Each award can be given to a maximum of three recipients per year. They each consist of a gold medal; a diploma; the extension of Swedish citizenship; and a sum of money. Currently the latter is about ten million Swedish Kronor (slightly more than one million Euros or about 1.4 million US dollars). �In case of more than one winner the prize is split among the winner. Prize in the same category can not beven for more than 3 people.

Posthumous nominations for Prizes are not allowed. In two cases the Prize was awarded posthumously to people who died in the months between their nomination and selection as a winner: UN Secretary General Dag Hammarskj�ld (1961, Peace) and Erik Axel Karlfeldt (1931, Literature). Since 1974, laureates must be alive at the time of the announcement of the award in October. There has been one laureate - William Vickrey (1996, Economics) - who died after the prize was announced but before it could be presented to him. In 1948 Mahatma Gandhi would have been awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, but he was killed several days after the award was announced.

�In 1973 when Henry Kissinger and Le Duc Tho shared the Peace Prize for bringing peace to Vietnam, even though the War in Vietnam was ongoing at the time. Le Duc Tho declined the award, for the stated reason that peace had not been achieved

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Mahatma Gandhi was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize five times between 1937 and 1948 but never won it.

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Iin 2002, a Prize was awarded to Koichi Tanaka and John Fenn for the development of mass spectrometry in protein chemistry, an award that failed to recognise the achievements of Franz Hillenkamp and Michael Karas of the Institute for Physical and Theoretical Chemistry at the University of Frankfurt.

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Rosalind Franklin, made some of the key steps toward the discovery of the structure of DNA in 1953, but died of ovarian cancer in 1958, four years before Francis Crick, James D. Watson and Maurice Wilkins (one of Franklin’s collaborators) were awarded the Prize for Medicine or Physiology in 1962.

In the history of the Nobel Prize, there have been only four people to have received two Nobel Prizes. These are:

Marie Curie

Physics [1903]: Discovery of Radioactivity

Chemistry [1911]: Isolation of Pure Radium

Linus Pauling

Chemistry [1954]: Hybridized Orbital Theory

Peace [1962]: Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty Activism

John Bardeen

Physics [1956]: Invention of Transistor

Physics [1972]: Theory of Superconductivity

Frederick Sanger

Chemistry [1958]: Structure of the Insulin Molecule

Chemistry [1980]: Virus Nucleotide Sequencing

• Otto Heinrich Warburg was an exceptional case. He had the distinction of being offered two Nobel Prizes: Medicine [1931]�On Respiration of cells�that he received, and, another Nobel Award in the same field in 1944: which he was prevented from accepting by the Nazi government, which had issued a decree in 1937 that prohibited Germans from accepting Nobel Prizes.

• The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1917, 1944, and 1963. The first two prizes were specifically in recognition of the group’s work during the world wars.

• Eight fathers and sons have both won Nobels (J.J. Thomson in 1906 and George Paget Thomson in 1937)(William Henry Bragg and William Lawrence Bragg both in 1915)(Niels Henrik Bohr in 1922 and Aage Bohr in 1975) (Arthur Kornberg in 1959 and Roger D. Kornberg in 2006); one husband (Pierre Curie), wife (Marie Curie), and daughter (Ir�ne Joliot-Curie) have all won prizes. The only siblings to win Nobel Prizes are Jan Tinbergen (Economics, 1969) and his younger brother Niko Tinbergen (Medicine, 1973).

• Only one person has the distinction of being an Oscar winner and a Nobel Laureate. The Irishman, George Bernard Shaw winner of the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1925 won an Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay in 1938.

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Finally planet Pluto became one of the  dwarf palnets in our solar system. Its planetary status was taken away yesterday by International Astronomical Union (IAU). It is the farthest planet from the sun and was discovered only 76 years back in 1930.  In fact Pluto was not a single planet but is a duel planetery system with its moon Cheron which is of equal size to Pluto. According to astronomers pluto is one of the Kupier Belt Objects (KBOs) which are icy objects at the outer belt of the solar system. The first KBO was discovered in 1990s. Plutos mroperties are more akin to KBOs than that of the other eight plants of the solar system. Till 2003 Pluto was the largets KBO discovered but with the discovery of  2003UB213 the Pluto status of being a plante was further questioned. It took somany years to finally decide that it is not a planet but one of the dwarf palnets in our solar system. So we are left with only 8 palnets as on today.

All is well but waht happens to our Astrlogical predictions?. Are we to use only 8 planets in our birth charts? No idea !!

(Most of the technical material was taken from http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/headline_universe/solar_system/stories_2006/pluto_nonplanet_aug_2006.html&edu=high
)

Definition
The term stenosis means an abnormal narrowing of an opening. Mitral valve stenosis refers to a condition in the heart in which one of the valve openings has become narrow and restricts the flow of blood from the upper left chamber (left atrium) to the lower left chamber (left ventricle).

Description
In the heart, the valve that regulates the flow of blood between the left atrium and the left ventricle is called the mitral valve. If the mitral valve is abnormally narrow, due to disease or birth defect, blood flow from the atrium to the ventricle is restricted. This restricted flow leads to an increase in the pressure of blood in the left atrium. Over a period of time, this back pressure causes fluid to leak into the lungs. It can also lead to an abnormal heart rhythm (atrial fibrillation), which further decreases the efficiency of the pumping action of the heart.

Causes & symptoms
Mitral valve stenosis is almost always caused by rheumatic fever. As a result of rheumatic fever, the leaflets that form the opening of the valve are partially fused together. Mitral valve stenosis can also be present at birth. Babies born with this problem usually require surgery if they are to survive. Sometimes, growths or tumors can block the mitral valve, mimicking mitral valve stenosis.

If the restriction is severe, the increased blood pressure can lead to heart failure. The first symptoms of heart failure, which are fatigue and shortness of breath, usually appear only during physical activity. As the condition gets worse, symptoms may also be felt even during rest. A person may also develop a deep red coloring in the cheeks.

Diagnosis
Mitral valve stenosis is usually detected by a physician listening to heart sounds. Normal heart valves open silently to permit the flow of blood. A stenotic valve makes a snapping sound followed by a ‘rumbling’ murmur. The condition can be confirmed with a chest x ray and an electrocardiogram, both of which will show an enlarged atrium. Echocardiography, which produces images of the heart’s structure, is also helpful in making the diagnosis. If surgery is necessary, cardiac catheterization may be done to fully evaluate the heart before the operation.

Treatment
Drug therapy may help to slow the heart rate, strengthen the heart beat, and control abnormal heart rhythm. Drugs such as beta blockers, calcium channel blockers, and digoxin may be prescribed. A drug that prevents abnormal blood clotting (anticoagulant) called warfarin (Coumadin) may be recommended. If drug therapy does not produce satisfactory results, valve repair or replacement may be necessary.

Repair can be accomplished in two ways. In the first method, balloon valvuloplasty, the doctor will try to stretch the valve opening by threading a thin tube (catheter) with a balloon tip through a vein and into the heart. Once the catheter is positioned in the valve, the balloon is inflated, separating the fused areas. The second method involves opening the heart and surgically separating the fused areas.

If the valve is damaged beyond repair, it can be replaced with a mechanical valve or one that is partly mechanical and partly made from a pig’s heart.

Prognosis
Procedures available to treat mitral valve stenosis, whether medical or surgical, all produce effective results.

Prevention
The only possible way to prevent mitral valve stenosis is to prevent rheumatic fever. This can be done by evaluating sore throats for the presence of the bacteria that causes strep throat. Strep throat is easily treated with antibiotics

This is a very brief info about Mitral Valve Stenosis which i wanted to share with u all.

One of the most common problems in elders is dementia. This is in our language is forgetfulness. This seems to be a very normal problem at old age in India, but nothing much was done medically.

There are about 100 varieties of dementia and most common is
Alzheimer’s dementia.

The symptoms:

Every person experiences dementia in their own individual way, but there is usually a decline in memory, reasoning and communication skills and a gradual loss of the skills needed to carry out daily activities.If you are feeling confused, agitated or forgetful, you should see your GP. If you are close to someone who is showing these symptoms, you could suggest that you accompany them on their first visit.

Treatment:

In most instances, there are no ways to cure the diseases that cause dementia, such as Alzheimer’s disease. However, there are drugs available that may alleviate some of the symptoms. Some complementary therapies may also help to improve quality of life.

People who r really suffering from this problem need support from the home and near and dear. In india there r no socities who take care these people whereas in foriegn countries there r many voluntery organisations and socities who take care of them.

Alzheimers disease is mostly considered as a disease of the western materialistic world.The reasons being mostly genetical in nature and other hypothesis exists too.In India the incidence of Alzheimers is comparatively less but it does exist. Its a debilitating disease limiting the daily routine chores of a person and makes him dependable on others and its a pathetic situation.Most of the literature available on the study of Alzheimers is about the condition prevalent in the west.

In western and other affluent countries such ppl r taken care by societies specially formed by the government or by other NGOs.Unlike our society the the families in the western society do not live with the old parents or grandparents hence the need for such organisation to take care of ppl with Alzheimers.

In the scenario prevalent in India neither the govt nor the NGOs r able to take care of such ppl due to lack of resources ( claimed to be so).So its better if the problem is tackled at the grass root level where the family members r educated to have a sympathetic approach to ppl with Alzheimers.

Seismologists use a Magnitude scale to express the seismic energy
released by each earthquake. Here are the typical effects of
earthquakes in various magnitude ranges:

Earthquake Severity Richter Earthquake Magnitudes Effects

Less than 3.5 Generally not felt, but recorded.

3.5-5.4 Often felt, but rarely causes damage.

Under 6.0 At most slight damage to well-designed buildings.
Can cause major damage to poorly constructed buildings
over small regions.

6.1-6.9 Can be destructive in areas up to about 100 kilometers
across where people live.

7.0-7.9 Major earthquake. Can cause serious damage over
larger areas.

8 or greater Great earthquake. Can cause serious damage in areas
several hundred kilometers across.


Though this is a very generalised scale it provides a very good
estimate from the damage information obtained
What about the energy released during earth quakes with respesct to
the Richter magnitude? Here is the table with examples
Here we assume one ounce of TNT exploded below ground yields 640
million ergs of seismic wave energy

Richter TNT for Seismic Example
Magnitude Energy Yield (approximate)

-1.5 6 ounces Breaking a rock on a lab table
1.0 30 pounds Large Blast at a Construction Site
1.5 320 pounds
2.0 1 ton Large Quarry or Mine Blast
2.5 4.6 tons
3.0 29 tons
3.5 73 tons
4.0 1,000 tons Small Nuclear Weapon
4.5 5,100 tons Average Tornado (total energy)
5.0 32,000 tons
5.5 80,000 tons Little Skull Mtn., NV Quake, 1992
6.0 1 million tons Double Spring Flat, NV Quake, 1994
6.5 5 million tons Northridge, CA Quake, 1994
7.0 32 million tons Hyogo-Ken Nanbu, Japan Quake, 1995;
Largest Thermonuclear Weapon
7.5 160 million tons Landers, CA Quake, 1992
8.0 1 billion tons San Francisco, CA Quake, 1906
8.5 5 billion tons Anchorage, AK Quake, 1964
9.0 32 billion tons Chilean Quake, 1960
10.0 1 trillion tons (San-Andreas type fault circling Earth)
12.0 160 trillion tons (Fault Earth in half through center,
OR Earth’s daily receipt of solar energy)

That is really terrible. Is it Not? The last Tsunami is of 9.5
magnitude on Richter scale That means it has released an energy
equivelent to the energy produced by blasting 32 billion tons to 1 trillion tons on TNT.

What is a tsunami?

A tsunami (pronounced tsoo-nah-mee) is a wave train, or series of waves,generated in a body of water by an impulsive disturbance that vertically displaces the water column. Earthquakes, landslides, volcanic eruptions,explosions, and even the impact of cosmic bodies, such as meteorites, can generate tsunamis. Tsunamis can savagely attack coastlines, causing devastating property damage and loss of life.

How do tsunamis differ from other water waves?

Tsunamis are unlike wind-generated waves, which many of us may have observed on a local lake or at a coastal beach, in that they are characterized as shallow-water waves, with long periods and wave lengths. The wind-generated swell one sees at a California beach, for example, spawned by a storm out in the
Pacific and rhythmically rolling in, one wave after another, might have a period of about 10 seconds and a wave length of 150 m. A tsunami, on the other hand,can have a wavelength in excess of 100 km and period on the order of one hour.As a result of their long wave lengths, tsunamis behave as shallow-water waves.A wave becomes a shallow-water wave when the ratio between the water depth and its wave length gets very small. Shallow-water waves move at a speed that is equal to the square root of the product of the acceleration of gravity (9.8 m/s/s) and the water depth - let’s see what this implies: In the Pacific Ocean, where the typical water depth is about 4000 m, a tsunami travels at about 200 m/s, or over 700 km/hr. Because the rate at which a wave loses its energy is inversely related to its wave length, tsunamis not only propagate at high speeds, they can also travel great, transoceanic distances with limited energy losses.

How do earthquakes generate tsunamis?

Tsunamis can be generated when the sea floor abruptly deforms and vertically displaces the overlying water. Tectonic earthquakes are a particular kind of earthquake that are associated with the earth’s crustal deformation; when these
earthquakes occur beneath the sea, the water above the deformed area isdisplaced from its equilibrium position. Waves are formed as the displaced water mass, which acts under the influence of gravity, attempts to regain its equilibrium. When large areas of the sea floor elevate or subside, a tsunami can be created. Large vertical movements of the earth’s crust can occur at plate boundaries.Plates interact along these boundaries called faults. Around the margins of the Pacific Ocean, for example, denser oceanic plates slip under continental plates in a process known as subduction. Subduction earthquakes are particularly effective in generating tsunamis.


How do landslides, volcanic eruptions, and cosmic collisions generate tsunamis?

A tsunami can be generated by any disturbance that displaces a large water mass from its equilibrium position. In the case of earthquake-generated tsunamis, the water column is disturbed by the uplift or subsidence of the sea floor.Submarine landslides, which often accompany large earthquakes, as well as collapses of volcanic edifices, can also disturb the overlying water column as sediment and rock slump downslope and are redistributed across the sea floor. Similarly, a violent submarine volcanic eruption can create an impulsive force that uplifts the water column and generates a tsunami. Conversely, supermarine landslides and cosmic-body impacts disturb the water from above, as momentum from falling debris is transferred to the water into which the debris falls.Generally speaking, tsunamis generated from these mechanisms, unlike the Pacific-wide tsunamis caused by some earthquakes, dissipate quickly and rarely affect coastlines distant from the source area.

What happens to a tsunami as it approaches land?

As a tsunami leaves the deep water of the open ocean and travels into theshallower water near the coast, it transforms. A tsunami travels at a speed that is related to the water depth - hence, as the water depth decreases, the tsunami slows. The tsunami’s energy flux, which is dependent on both its wave speed and wave height, remains nearly constant. Consequently, as the tsunami’s speed diminishes as it travels into shallower water, its heightgrows. Because of this shoaling effect, a tsunami, imperceptible at sea, may grow to be several meters or more in height near the coast. When it finally reaches the coast, a tsunami may appear as a rapidly rising or falling tide, a series of breaking waves, or even a bore.

What happens when a tsunami encounters land?

As a tsunami approaches shore, it begins to slow and grow in height. Just like other water waves, tsunamis begin to lose energy as they rush onshore part of the wave energy is reflected offshore, while the shoreward-propagating wave energy is dissipated through bottom friction and turbulence. Despite these losses, tsunamis still reach the coast with tremendous amounts of energy. Tsunamis have great erosional potential, stripping beaches of sand that may have taken years to accumulate and undermining trees and other coastal vegetation. Capable of inundating, or flooding, hundreds of meters inland past the typical high-water level, the fast-moving water associated with the inundating tsunami can crush homes and other coastal structures. Tsunamis may reach a maximum vertical height onshore above sea level, often called a runup height, of 10, 20,and even 30 meters.